The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is often described as a paradox—blessed with abundant natural resources yet plagued by extreme poverty, violence, and human rights abuses. At the heart of this crisis lies the exploitation of conflict minerals—coltan, cobalt, gold, and tin—essential components for the global technology industry (Diemel & Hilhorst, 2019). Despite international efforts to regulate the trade of these minerals, research indicates that mining remains deeply entangled with armed conflicts, government corruption, and corporate irresponsibility (United Nations Security Council, 2022). Women and children are disproportionately affected, suffering from systemic sexual violence, forced labor, and economic exclusion (Taka, 2017). To understand how the DRC reached this crisis, we must first explore its political and economic history, particularly the legacy of colonialism, dictatorship, and foreign exploitation.

The Political and Economic History of the DRC: From Colonialism to Conflict

The roots of mineral-fueled conflicts in the DRC can be traced back to the Berlin Conference (1884-1885), where European powers carved up Africa without regard for existing ethnic or social structures (Nzongola-Ntalaja, 2002).

The Colonial Era and Economic Exploitation (1885-1960)

The Berlin Conference and King Leopold II’s Rule (1885-1908)

The DRC was handed over as the personal property of King Leopold II of Belgium under the name Congo Free State. The Belgian king established a brutal system of forced labor, particularly in the rubber and mineral industries (Hochschild, 1998). Millions of Congolese died due to forced labor, killings, and disease, making it one of the deadliest colonial regimes in history.

Belgian Colonial Rule (1908-1960)

Under Belgian administration, Congo became a key supplier of minerals such as copper, diamonds, and uranium (Declercq, 2022). Belgian corporations controlled the mining sector and extracted wealth without developing the country’s infrastructure. The uranium used in the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs (1945) was sourced from the Shinkolobwe mine in Katanga (Hecht, 2014).

The Independence Era and Cold War Conflicts (1960-1997)

The Assassination of Patrice Lumumba and Western Interference (1960-1965)

Congo gained independence in 1960, and Patrice Lumumba, the first prime minister, sought to nationalize resources and reduce foreign control over the economy. His anti-colonial stance alarmed Western powers, leading to his assassination in 1961, orchestrated with support from the CIA and Belgian intelligence (Witte, 2022).

Mobutu’s Kleptocracy and Economic Decline (1965-1997)

Mobutu Sese Seko seized power in 1965 with US backing, positioning himself as a Cold War ally against communism (Reno, 1997). His rule lasted over 32 years and was marked by systemic corruption, state looting, and authoritarian governance (Funderburk, 2021). While Mobutu amassed billions of dollars in personal wealth, Zaire’s public infrastructure collapsed (Afoaku, 1997). Foreign corporations continued extracting copper, gold, and diamonds, benefiting from his regime’s protection and economic mismanagement (Askin & Collins, 1993).

The Congo Wars and the Rise of Conflict Minerals (1997-Present)

First and Second Congo Wars (1996-2003)

After Mobutu’s overthrow in 1997, the DRC descended into a series of wars involving multiple African nations. Rwanda and Uganda, along with Western companies, were implicated in the illegal trade of conflict minerals (UNSC, 2001). The wars resulted in over 5 million deaths, making them the deadliest conflicts since World War II (Prunier, 2009).

Post-War Period and Persistent Instability (2003-Present)

Despite official peace agreements, rebel groups continue to exploit mineral wealth, particularly in eastern DRC. Weak governance, foreign interference, and corporate complicity have kept the country trapped in a cycle of violence.

The Minerals-Fueled War: A Cycle of Violence

The DRC possesses vast deposits of minerals critical to modern industries, yet these resources have become a curse rather than a blessing. Several studies confirm that mineral exploitation in the DRC is inextricably linked to violence (Diemel & Hilhorst, 2019). Armed groups such as the M23 rebels and Mai-Mai militias control large portions of mining sites in eastern DRC. These groups impose illegal taxes, force local miners into exploitative labor, and use the profits to fund weapons and warfare (Diemel & Hilhorst, 2019). The U.N. estimates that 90% of coltan exports are smuggled into Rwanda and Uganda before reaching international markets (UNSC, 2022).

The Human Cost: Women and Children as Collateral Victims

The ongoing conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has created devastating humanitarian consequences, particularly for women and children. In mining regions, thousands of Congolese children, some as young as six, are subjected to hazardous labor conditions in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operations (Cataleta, 2020; Sovacool, 2021). Many of these children work underground in dangerous conditions, handling toxic materials without protection, leading to severe health consequences and educational deprivation (Geenen et al., 2023).

Additionally, women and girls in these conflict-affected areas face systematic sexual violence, which is used as a weapon of war by armed groups to displace communities and secure control over resource-rich territories (Rustad et al., 2016). Reports estimate that over 200,000 women in eastern DRC have suffered rape and other forms of sexual abuse, with perpetrators ranging from militias to members of state security forces (Rustad et al., 2016; Whitman, 2016). The intersection of armed conflict, illegal mining, and gender-based violence perpetuates a vicious cycle of exploitation, making it crucial for international actors, corporations, and the Congolese government to implement stronger legal protections, economic alternatives, and community-based interventions to safeguard women and children in conflict zones.

Pathways to Peace in the DRC

Despite international due diligence laws, corporate accountability for conflict minerals remains weak. Research shows that current regulations, such as the Dodd-Frank Act and the EU Conflict Minerals Regulation, often fail to prevent exploitation because they focus on compliance rather than protecting miners (Diemel & Hilhorst, 2019). Many multinational companies continue to source minerals from conflict zones through indirect trade networks, bypassing regulations by smuggling minerals through third-party countries like Rwanda and Uganda (Geenen et al., 2023). Stronger legal enforcement mechanisms, including criminal penalties for corporations funding conflict minerals, are needed to close these loopholes (Das, 2018). Moreover, sustainable economic alternatives are necessary to break the cycle of conflict mining. Initiatives like the Fair Cobalt Alliance aim to improve conditions, but real change will remain elusive without government-backed mining cooperatives and direct international investment in ethical sourcing (Das, 2018). A long-term solution must combine corporate accountability, strict enforcement of due diligence laws, and alternative economic opportunities for mining communities.

WILPF’s Role in Advocacy

 From Exploitation to Justice

The war in the DRC is not just a conflict—it is a crisis fueled by profit, corruption, and global complicity. Efforts to end it must move beyond symbolic gestures and tackle the root causes of violence. These efforts must:

• Advocate for women’s leadership in peace negotiations and economic development.
• Pressure corporations to adopt binding ethical supply chain laws.
• Call for policy reforms that end impunity for human rights violations.

Call to Action for WILPF members:

• Support grassroots organizations fighting for ethical mining and women’s rights.
• Demand corporate transparency from tech companies sourcing minerals from the DRC.
• Advocate for stronger international laws to dismantle the mineral war economy.

The time to act is now. The people of the DRC deserve justice, peace, and a future free from exploitation.

Julie Kabukanyi is a Master’s in International Relations/PhD Public Policy student at UMass-Boston.

References

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